Factors Facilitating the Typological Study of Lexicon

Words, their semantic classes, word-forming means, their structural models and stylistic peculiarities of use. lexico-semantic groups (LSGs) of words stable and idiomatic expressions of universal nature (though they always have some national peculiarities in every single language)

The systemic organisation of lexicon is conditioned in all languages by extralingual & bylingual factors which are of universal nature.

the physical and mental factors; ( live, eat, drink, think, sleep, wake, walk, run, jump, love, merry, die, etc. speak, think, ask, answer, decide, realise, imagine, understand ) the environmental factors; (the sun, the moon, the stars, the wind, the sky, thunder, lightning; species of plants, trees, fruits, colours, and living beings like fish, insects, mice, cats, dogs) the social factors (various social phenomena as well as relationships and activities of man: mother, father, child, sister, brother) universal lexicon

deictic notions pronouns, adverbial and adverbially expressed feelings, exclamations, specific national culturally based notions universal lexicon

dialectal, professional, poetic, archaic, lexicons slang, international, specifically national

International elements genuine internationalisms (parliament, poet, theatre, molecule, theorem, forum, history, waltz, sword of Damocles, to pass the Rubicon, Pandora's box, etc.) loan internationalisms (specific gravity/weight питома вага, the law of gravitation закон земного тяжіння, agreement (gram.) узгодження, the composite sentence складне речення, case відмінок, addition додавання, subtraction віднімання, division ділення, etc.)

Kids" language Nouns: биць/биця (male, calf), киця (cat or kitten), миня (cow, calf), ґуля/гулі (pigeon(s)), гуся (goose), тася (duck or duckling), etc. Members of family : неня/мама (mummy), тато (daddy), буня/ бабуня (grannie), дядя (uncle), діда (grandfather), няня (nurse), доця (daughter), etc. Parts of human body: вусьо (ear), нозя (legfoot), руця (hand), оцьо/оці (eye, eyes). Other nouns denoting different objects or phenomena: буцьо (ap ple), лозя (spoon), кика (meat), папа (bread), кетя (sweety), моня (milk), льоля (shirt, dress), дюдя (cold weather), люля (cot, cradle, bed), ляля (kid, doll),etc.

I. lexico-grammatical nature; II. lexico-semantic group; III. stylistic function and meaning; IV. denotative or connotative (or both) meanings, etc.

Notionals substantivity, verbiality, deictic properties, adverbiality, etc

Functionals the exception: the and a/аn. prepositions conjunctions Particles Interjections modal words and modal phrases

the notion of "dwelling adjectives denoting: dimension, beauty, Colours age verbal LSGs: saying mental or physical perceptions motion with or without the help of a vehicle prepositional LSGs conjunctions particles

Class 1. Concrete, countable life nouns denoting non-persons. animals, birds, cattle, livestock, game, wild animals, flocks and herds, metaphorically used animals' and birds' names that characterise the negative features of people

Class 2. Concrete, countable life nouns denoting persons. proper names of people names of nations Races ancestral and modifying names jargonisms

Class 3. Concrete, countable, non-person, inanimate nouns plant names names of celestial bodies and atmospheric masses parts of human body names of arts means of communication names of unique unreal bodies

Class 4. Concrete life nouns, non-person common collective nouns:names of multitudes (nation, race, family, crew, staff, gang, company / родина, раса, нація, екіпаж, штаб, групa)

Class 5. Collective life nouns species of animals species of fish a mass of some living beings (swarm of bees рій бджіл, pack of dogs/wolves зграя/тічка собак/вовків, flock of sheep/herd of cattle отара овець/череда корів)

Class 6. Concrete, inanimate, uncountable non-person nouns mass material abstract nouns (+ butter, bread, sugar, oil, snow, sand, silver, + залізо, срібло, повітря, паліччя, молоко, білизна, листя, збіжжя, залізяччя, тремтіння)

Class 7. numerous & various abstract nouns (+ business, information, news, feudalism, thought, thinking, significance, tolerance, etc. + гадка, думка, значимість, погляд, вміння, знання, мислення, безробіття, намагання, завзяття, ентузіазм)

Identifying subclasses

characterised by: transitivity or intransitivity, perfective or non-perfective reflexiveness or non-reflexiveness active and passive voice implicit and explicit categorial meanings and forms of the verb as person, number, mood, tense Subclass 1

the qualitative degrees of comparison suppletivity (good-better - the best, добрий - кращий - найкращий; bad - worse - the worst, поганий - гірший -найгірший; the relative only in English : little - less -the least). but only in Ukrainian possessive adjectives (мамин, татів, сестрин, Петрова книжка) Subclass 2

isomorphic and allomorphic features with nouns or numerals and functionally with adjectives personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, we, they я, ти/ви, він, вона, ми, вони), demonstrative pronouns (this, that, such, those, etc. цей, той, такий, ті), possessive pronouns (his, her, our, their його, її, наш, їхній). In English: possessive absolute pronouns (mine, hers, ours, yours) and possessive conjoined ones i.e. those of my, his, her, etc. Subclass 3

cardinal numerals ordinal numerals, fractionals, decimal in Ukrainian indefinite cardinal numerals (кілька, декілька, кільканадцять, мало/небагато (of something), collective numerals (двійко, трійко, п'ятеро/п'ятірко, обоє, обидва, etc.) Subclass 4

temporal relations: now, then, when, today зараз, тоді, коли, сьогодні; local relations: here, everywhere, nowhere, there, etc. тут, ніде, повсюди, там; direction: eastwards, whence, thence східніше, туди, звідти, звідусіль; manner: how, so, slowly як, так, повільно, etc.; degree: quite, almost, completely, etc. зовсім, цілком, повністю, майже, etc. Subclass 5

A. temporal relations: at night, by day, during the day, in September, last month, at that time, in 1999, etc. - протягом/впродовж: дня, тоді, зараз, вдень, за тиждень, серед ночі, у вересні, минулого тижня. B. Local relations: in Kyiv, somewhere, here, there, far away, not far from there, where the road forks, etc. - десь, там/тут, далеко звідси, десь у Сибіру, де шляхи розходяться. C. Adverbials expressing direction: into the room, to London, from Rome, towards the capital, etc. - у поле, на Берлін, із США, (політ) на місяць, звідки сонце сходить. D. Adverbials expressing manner: slowly/quickly, enthusiasti cally, by plane/by train, with great speed, quickly, without enthusi asm; повільно, гарно, повагом, з увагою, з ентузіазмом, без задоволення, поза сумнівом, з великою швидкістю, etc. Subclass 5

London cockney (hopen for open, hup for up, hus for us, etc. am for ham, ill for hill, Arry for Harry, doin', readin', mornin', etc.) Scottish dialect Ukrainian dialects Western :Hutsul dialects(дєдя and нянько for father, верховина for uplands; in Halych region когут is used for півень, вуйко for uncle (дядько), вуйна for дядина, файний for гарний, etc. Northen Central social principle

Greek : apostle, church, priest, poet, theatre, history, zoology, democracy, etc. Latin : parliament, senate, jurisdiction, angina, appendicitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, army, port, wall, mile, legion international terms of different origin: as blitz, blitzkrieg, U- boat (German), Molotov cocktail, Bolshevist, Gulag, Duma (Russian) or hryvnia (Ukrainian), etc. Ukrainian English: коми'ютер, дисплей, менеджмент, маркетинг, бартер, імпічмент, інтернет, кліп, дискета, сканер, серфінг, валеологія,. American: xim, топ, кліп, шоу, саунд-трек, кантрі (music), etc. Internationalisms

social relations/phenomena: yakuza /ja:ku'za:/ Japanese gangster (from Japanese); cultural life: Cafe theatre /ksefeiteiae:tre/ room for lecturing and theatrical performances; cusines as calzone (Italian) high curds pie; burrito (Spanish) maize pancakes wrapped around the minced veal, curds and fried beans; Eastern sports terms as iaido (Japanese) kind of fencing; religious and medical notions as zazen (Japanese) meditation in dzen Buddhism, shiatsu (Japanese) kind of healing massage; Neologisms

abbreviations: MTV, HDTV, СНІД; colloquial newly-formed neologisms: nonentity (ніщо, нікчема), yuppy i.e. young upwardly-mobile professional, etc. "зелені" (амер. долари), "телек" (телевізор); colloquialisms Jargonisms slang-isms Vulgarisms professionalisms Neologisms

bookish words licit законний/дозволений, lacerate рвати (калічити, нівечити), возз'єднання reunification, всесилля unrestricted power; Poetic words and expressions adore (to worship), harken (hear), злото, дівчинонька; Archaisms well nigh (almost, nearly), thee (you sg.) глас (голос), град (місто); Stylistically distinct layers of lexicon

Denotative words: electron, motor, miner, tongsелектрон, мотор, шахтар, обценьки Connotative words/word- groups: Albion (poet, for England), the Bard of Avon (Shakespeare); Кобзар (Т. Shevchenko), Каменяр (I. Franko) Both denotative and connotative bear, fox, pig, goose, parrot, rat, свиня, тхір, собака, папуга, лисиця, корова (коровисько) Informational structure/capacity

ameliorative words: daddy, mummy, sissie, chivalrous, gentleman; матуся, татуньо, дідунь, козаченько, серденько, голівонька; pejorative (лайливі) words: bastard, blackguard, clown, knave; байстрюк, нікчема, негідник, покидьок, головоріз, etc.; constantly neutral words and wordgroups /expressions: smith, geometry, teacher, love, you, he, all, гімнастика/фізкультура. Stylistically marked groups of lexical units

synonymous nouns: end, close/кінець, закінчення synonymous adjectives as conclusive, ending, final, terminal, / кінцевий, останній, заключний; synonymous verbs : act, play, perform, /діяти, виконувати, відігравати, брати участь; synonymous adverbs: surprisingly, unexpectedly, unawares, /раптово, зненацька, негадано, Antonyms : lateness - earliness, freedom - slavery; work - play, continue - stop, beautiful - ugly, good - bad, quickly -slowly, up - down, etc./ висота - низина; гора - долина; створювати - руйнувати; знаходити - губити; хвалити - гудити; високий - низький; багатий - бідний, гладкий - худий, гарно synonyms and antonyms

categorial meanings of person, tense, aspect goes (the root go + es inflexion) oice category of number songs

Monosemantic words (pronouns, numerals, conjunctions and various nomenclature words (terms) Polysemantic words (boat can mean човен, судно/корабель, шлюпка; coat can mean верхній одяг, пальто, піджак, кітель, хутро (тварин), захисний шар фарби на предметі)

inner means: morphemes; words; phrases/word-groups sentences outer (borrowed) means: separate morphemes, words, word-groups.

a) simple words (book, boy; книжка, хлопець) ; compound words (blackboard, steamship, railway/добродій, легковажити, літописець) productive in present-day English but rare in present-day Ukrainian wholophrasal compounding (break-through, sit-in, commander-in-chief) Occasionalisms (a to-be-or-not-to-be question / Наталка "теє того як його" (І. Котляревський)

Phonetically motivated words = sounding structure somewhat similar to the sounds which they convey (cock-a-doodle-doo - кукуріку, bang - бух/бухнути) Morphologically motivated = notional words, in which it is clearly indicated by the affixal morphemes (flyer, examinee, оповідач, співець). Semantic motivation = figurative/ connotative meaning of words or phrases, representing the transferred meanings of their denotata (foot of a mountain підніжжя гори)