Presented by: Yesmagulova Aidana. What is Cooperation?Cooperation can be understood as an essential factor when speakers and listeners are interacting, - презентация

1 Presented by: Yesmagulova Aidana

2 What is Cooperation?Cooperation can be understood as an essential factor when speakers and listeners are interacting, in other words, it is the expectation that the listener has towards the speaker. The speaker is supposed to convey true statements and say nothing more than what is required.

3 Cooperation When people talk with each other, they try to converse smoothly and successfully. Cooperation is the basis of successful conversation

4 The Cooperative Principle A principle proposed by the philosopher Paul Grice in 1975,whereby those involved in communication assume that both parties will normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning.

5 COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice (1975). The speaker is co operative and intends to communicate something That something must be more than what the words mean It leads to implicature

6 There is a set of guidelines for effective and rational use of language. Guidelines = a general cooperative principle + Four maxims of conversation. Cooperative principle and its four maxims Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage as which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. Specifically, there are four maxims under this genera

7 Conversational maxims Maxims of Speech Maxim of Quality Maxim of Quantity Maxim of Relation Maxim of Manner

8 Maxim of Quality Definition When engaged in conversation, the Maxim of Quality requires that you Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.

9 Basic IdeaThe Maxim of Quality requires information provided in conversations to be genuine and justified. It is one of the four conversational maxims of the Cooperative Principle. Grice proposes this maxim as an explanation for a certain kind of regularity in conversational behavior with respect to the authenticity of information provided at each turn of a conversation.

10 Example 1 Slide Jim, do you know where the Big Ben Clock Tower is ? Its in London. One finds this normal. Why? Because the Maxim is observedJim does not contribute what he believes to be false and to be unsubstantiated. – e.g. Its in Hong Kong.

11 Example 2 Jenny, how do you like this novel? Oh, I like the red cover. Because the Maxim is violated. Jenny says something that evidently she does not believe in (i.e. she told a lie). Why do we find Jennys reply strange?

12 The cover is clearly not red, and Jennys response is not what one would expect when deciding if one likes a novel. Deliberate and apparent violation of maxims is called flouting. We do not expect the Maxim to be violated. Flouting must be motivated. Oh, I like its red cover. Jenny, how do you like this novel?

13 Oh, I like its red cover. Jenny, how do you like this novel? Inferences obtained from flouting of maxims are called implicatures. Jenny may be implicating that there is nothing about the novel that she likes, not even the cover. Note: Implicatures do not have to be necessarily true, since the inferences are guessed at rather than derived by formal logic

14 Maxim of Quantity Definition When engaged in conversation, the Maxim of Quantity requires you to Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the purpose of the exchanges). Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

15 Basic IdeaThe Maxim of Quantity relates to the amount of information provided in conversations. It is one of the four conversational maxims that make up the Cooperative Principle. Grice proposes this maxim as an explanation for a certain kind of regularity in conversational behavior with respect to the amount of information provided in each turn of a conversation

16 Example 1Given the purpose of the conversation, the man contributes only as much information as is required. not excessive like its 9:30 at night, Greenwich Mean Time, 20 May 2009, … Not inadequate like, its night time. Slide Do you have the time? Yes, its 9:30. One finds this normal. Why? Because the Maxim is observed

17 Example 2 Slide Liz, can I have Johns number? Yes. Despite her positive answer, we find Lizs behavior weird. Why? Because the Maxim is violated. Less information is provided than is required. 25. Flouting a Maxim Slide Liz, can I have Johns number? Yes. In a case such as this, one might infer that Liz doesnt have the number with her and will supply it later. Because we do not expect the Maxim to be violated, the apparent violation must be motivated. WHY? Deliberate and apparent violation of maxims is called flouting.

18 Implicatures Liz, can I have Johns number? Yes. Inferences obtained from flouting of maxims are called implicatures.Liz may be implicating that Y our love rival is near, Ill tell you later OR I really dont want to give it to you because John doesnt like you; he likes me Note: Implicatures do not have to be necessarily true, since the inferences are guessed at rather than derived by formal logic

19 Maxim of Relation/Relevance 28. Definition When engaged in conversation, the Maxim of Relation requires you to Be relevant H.P. Grice (1975)

20 Basic IdeaThe Maxim of Relation is one of the four conversational maxims of the Cooperative Principle. Grice proposes this maxim as an explanation for a certain kind of regularity in conversational behavior with respect to the relevance of information provided at each turn of a conversation

21 Example 1The woman contributes what is relevant for the purpose of the conversation. not irrelevant like I like steak very much or What nice weather! Slide Medium rare, please. How do you like your steak cooked? Because the Maxim is observed One finds this normal. Why?

22 Example 2 Slide Daniel, is Morgan good as a finance manager? He is a polite man and works on time. We find Daniels behavior weird. Why? Because the Maxim is violated. Daniels contribution is irrelevant for the purpose of the conversation. 32. Example 2 Slide He is a polite man and works on time. In this case, one might infer Morgan is not a good finance manager. Because we do not expect the Maxim to be violated, the apparent violation must be motivated. Deliberate and apparent violation of maxims is called flouting. WHY? Daniel, is Morgan good as a finance manager?

23 Reasons for ViolationIf someone want to deceive the listener. Example: Interviewer: What is the military budget? President : Could you keep secret? Interviewer: Yes President: So can I, I can keep secret too. Slide

24 Reasons for ViolationIf someone doesnt want to respond Example: MEREDITH You really love me? JOHN I like Ferris wheels, and college football, and things that go real fast.

25 Maxim of Manner 37. Definition When engaged in conversation, the Maxim of Manner requires you to be perspicuous. Includes (but not restricted to) Avoid obscurity of expression Avoid ambiguity. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). Be orderly.

26 ExampleA: I hear you went to the opera last night, how was the lead singer? B : The singer produced a series of sounds corresponding closely to the score of an aria from Rigoletto

27 Basic IdeaThe Maxim of Manner is related to how something is being said in the conversation. It is one of the four conversational maxims that are part of the Cooperative Principle. Grice proposes this maxim as an explanation for a certain kind of regularity in conversational behavior with respect to the way information is provided at each turn of a conversation.

28 Example Lets begin by considering two propositions: P1: Laura ran to the pier. P2: Laura jumped. Slide 41. Example Logically, P1 & P2 = P2 & P

29 Example Slide One finds this conversation normal. Why? Because the Maxim is observed Laura jumped and ran to the pier. What did Laura do when she heard that Lauris boat had arrived? 43. Example Slide One finds this bewildering. Why? Because the Maxim is violated. What did Laura do when she heard that Lauris boat had arrived? Laura ran to the pier and jumped. 44. Example Logically, P1 & P2 = P2 & P1 But being orderly in the presentation of information is important in conversations. This is an effect of the Maxim of Manner.

30 Violation Slide What did Laura do when she heard that Lauris boat had arrived? Laura ran to the pier and jumped. Deliberate and apparent violation of maxims is called flouting. We do not expect the Maxim to be violated. Flouting must be motivated. Inferences obtained from flouting of maxims are called implicatures. The woman in red may be implicating that Lauri is Lauras nemesis. 46. Scope of Manner Violations of the Maxim of Manner can take many forms: Order of presentation of information Vagueness and ambiguity Volume and pace Choice of words Attitude Even facial/gestural expressions

31 Criticism Slide 48. Conversational implicature The basic assumption in conversation is that the participants are adhering to the cooperative principle and the maxim.

32 Example: Wife: I hope you brought the bread and the cheese. Husband : Ah, I brought the bread.In this case the husband does not mention the cheese.Then, he must intend that the wife infers what is not mentioned was not brought.The husband has conveyed more than he has said via a conversational implicature

33 Through this example, it is possible to perceive that there isn o special background required in the context to calculate the additional conveyed meaning.Thus, it is called a GENERALIZED CONVERSATIONAL IMPLICATURE

34 Conversational implicaturesAccording to Grice, utterance interpretation is not a matter of decoding messages, but rather involves (1) taking the meaning of the sentences together with contextual information, (2) using inference rules (3) working out what the speaker means on the basis of the assumption that the utterance conforms to the maxims. The main advantage of this approach from Grices point of view is that it provides a pragmatic explanation for a wide range of phenomena, especially for conversational implicautres --- a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.

35 According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and openly flouting the maxims, that is, speakers can produce implicatures in two ways: observance and non-observance of the maxims.Ex. (1) Husband: Where are the car keys? Wife: Theyre on the table in the hall. The wife has answered clearly (manner) and truthfully (Quality), has given just the right amount of information (Quantity) and has directly addressed her husbands goal in asking the question (Relation). She ahs said precisely what she meant, no more and no less.

36 Particularized conversational implicaturesOccur when a conversation takes place in a very specific context in which locally recognized inferences are assumed. Rick: Hey, coming to the wild party tonight? Tom: My parents are visiting. In order to make Toms response relevant, Rick has to draw on some assumed knowledge that one college student in this setting expects another to have. Tom will be spending that evening with his parents, and time spent with parents is quiet ( consequently +> Tom not at party).

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