Vladivostok, Russia, 3-6 October 2007 Sputnik: the fiftieth anniversary From first Sputnik till oceanographic satellites: pages of history Leonid M. Mitnik V.I. Ilichev Pacific Oceanological Institute, FEB RAS

Sputnik 1 (Russian: Спутник-1) Sputnik 1 (Satellite – literally, "travelling companion" – One) was the first artificial satellite to be put into orbit, on 4 October 1957, under the initials ПС-1 (PS-1, i.e. Простейший Спутник- 1 or "Elementary Satellite 1"). PS-1 was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrom (at the time, the Tyuratam military range). Coming at the height of the Cold War, the launching of Sputnik caught the West by surprise, and led, in the U.S., to a wave of self-recrimination, the beginning of the spave race, and a movement to reform science education. The Sputnik launch also led directly to the creation of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In July 1958, Congress passed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, which created NASA as of October 1, 1958 from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and other government agencies.

First Sputnik

Antennas wiring

Spacecraft design The satellite weighed about 83 kg. The Sputnik 1 satellite was a 58- cm diameter aluminium sphere carrying four whip-like antennas between 2.4 and 2.9 m in length. The antennas resembled long "whiskers" pointing to one side. It had two radio transmitters operated at and MHz) (about 15 and 7.5 m in wavelength), the emissions taking place in alternating groups of 0.3 s duration. Analysis of the radio signals (beeps) was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere. Temperature and pressure were encoded in the duration of radio beeps. The downlink telemetry included data on temperatures inside and on the surface of the sphere. Because the sphere was filled with nitrogen under pressure, Sputnik 1 provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection (no such events were reported), since losses in internal pressure due to meteoroid penetration of the outer surface would have been evident in the temperature data.

First Sputnik m

The satellite transmitters operated for three weeks and were monitored with intense interest around the world, until the on-board chemical batteries failed. The orbit of the satellite was later observed optically to decay 92 days after launch (January 4, 1958) after having completed 1440 orbits of the Earth. The Sputnik 1 rocket booster also reached Earth orbit and was visible from the ground at night as a first magnitude object. The satellite itself, a small but highly polished sphere, was barely visible at sixth magnitude, and thus more difficult to follow optically.

Changes The Sputnik launch changed everything. As a technical achievement, Sputnik caught the world's attention and the American public off-guard. Its size was more impressive than Vanguard's intended 3.5-pound payload. In addition, the public feared that the Soviets' ability to launch satellites also translated into the capability to launch ballistic missiles that could carry nuclear weapons from Europe to the U.S. Then the Soviets struck again; on November 3, Sputnik II was launched, carrying a much heavier payload, including a dog named Laika. Immediately after the Sputnik I launch in October, the U.S. Defense Department responded to the political furor by approving funding for another U.S. satellite project. As a simultaneous alternative to Vanguard, Wernher von Braun and his Army Redstone Arsenal team began work on the Explorer project.

Yuriy Gagarin

Yuriy Gagarin and Sergey Pavlovich Korolev

Krushchev and Gagarin

MCSST for 27 March 2004 German Titov, Cosmonaut 2

Monographs Гидрометеоиздат, Ленинград 1970 Гидрометеоиздат, Ленинград 1971

Wavelength (cm) Center frequency (GHz) Antenna pattern width (degree) Efficiency (%) Sensitivity (K) IFOV *) (apogee) (km x km)50 x 5022 x 2220 x x 22 IFOV (perigee) (km x km)35 x 3515 x 1513 x x 15 Incidence angle (degree) 0 *) IFOV is Instantaneous Field Of View KOSMOS-243, the first satellite with microwave radiometers, was launched on 23 September Orbit inclination 71.3, apogee km, perigee km. Passive microwave sensing of the ocean started in the U.S.S.R. in the early 1960s. The first two satellites to carry four microwave radiometers into space were Kosmos-243 launched in 1968 and Kosmos-384 in Kosmos-243 Microwave Radiometer Specifications Kosmos-243 and Kosmos-384

Kosmos-243 measurements Brightness temperatures variations across the Pacific measured at 8.5 cm (1), 3.4 cm (2) and climatic distribution (3) SST section across the Pacific retrieved from Tb(8.5) and Tb(3.4).

Kosmos-243 measurements Ice concentration map constructed from satellite microwave data: C > 50% (1) and C < 50 % (2).

Kosmos-243 measurements Brightness temperature variations over Antarctica shelf ice

Kosmos-243 measurements Brightness temperature variations over Antarctica land ice and sea ice

Kosmos-243 measurements Precipitable water field over the Northern Pacific constructed from Tb data acquired on 23 Sep 1968 with the superimposed atmospheric fronts.

Kosmos-243 measurements Precipitable water field over the Northern Pacific constructed from Tb data acquired on 23 Sep 1968 with the superimposed atmospheric fronts.

Kosmos-243 Latitude distributions of precipitable water (left) and cloud liquid water content (right) over the Pacific (1), Indian (2), and Atlantic (3) Oceans and over the whole ocean in September W, g/sm 2 Q, kg/m 2 Mw = 1, g/sm 2 Wср = 2,4 g/sm 2

Kosmos-243 and Kosmos-384 The possibilities of retrieving sea surface temperature, near-surface winds, total atmospheric water vapor content, total cloud liquid water content, and sea ice parameters were documented by Basharinov et al. (1974). Издательство «Наука» Москва, 1974

Monographs

Kosmos-1076 and Kosmos-1151 Applications of satellite remote sensing to oceanography were discussed in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd All-Union Oceanographers Congresses in 1978, 82, and 87. Results from oceanographic satellites that included microwave radiometers – Kosmos-1076 and Kosmos-1151 launched in 1979 and 80 – were given by Nelepo et al. (1983). Издательство «Наука» Москва, 1983

Registration of Tb on electrochemical paper

L.M. Mitnik and S.V. Victorov, Eds. Ленинград Гидрометеоиздат, Экспериментальный океанографический спутник «Космос-1500» 2.Физические основы РЛ- съемок с орбиты ИСЗ. 3.Радиолокационная система бокового обзора ИСЗ «Космос-1500» 4.Предварительная обработка данных РЛС БО 5.Характеристики морской поверхности 6.Характеристики морского льда 7.Характеристики материкового льда

Kosmos-1500 Seen on the left (a) is a Real Aperture Radar (RAR) and on the right (b) a visible image of an occluded cyclone over the Okhotsk Sea taken by Kosmos-1500 on 29 December Iturup Island (1), northern coast of the Okhotsk Sea (2), Hokkaido (3), and Sakhalin (4) are identified. Brightness of the RAR image is influenced by wind speed and direction (relative to the radar direction), with brightness increasing with increasing wind speed. Comparison of two images shows a high correlation of wind field in (a) with cloudiness in (b). Radar images such as this have demonstrated their potential for monitoring the sea surface under all-weather conditions.

Tropical Storm Agnes TC Agnes as seen by the RAR (a) and the 0.8-cm microwave radiometer (b) carried aboard Okean-1. These images were taken on 31 July 1988 in the western North Pacific in the vicinity of Sakhalin (1) and Hokkaido (2) Islands. Changes in brightness temperature in (b) are due to precipitation, cloud liquid water, and wind action. The unique capability of this series, the simultaneous acquisition of overlapping images by three different sensors at three different wavelengths, enabled an improved interpretation of measurements and a reduction in errors of retrieved parameters. ( Such a capability would be employed on later satellites such as TRMM and ADEOS-II.)

Sea ice on Оcеаn-7 images лед SLR swath Visible range SLR 4 May Jan March 1997 лед ice

Typhoon Herb a) b) c) Okinawa Samar Illumination direction Taiwan Samar Typhoon Herb as measured on 29 July 1996: (а) visible and (b) radar images from Okean-7 satellite and (с) brightness temperature at frequency 85 GHz from DMSP

Kuroshio and synoptic eddies on radar and infrared images Radar image of the Okhotsk Sea and the Pacific Ocean near Kuril Islands taken from Оcean-7 on 20 November 1999 г. При W < 5-6 м/с к югу от Курил значительным РЛ-контрастом обладают АЦ вихрь 1, окружаю- щие его холодные воды Ойясио 2 и теплые воды Куросио 3, ограничивающие их с юга. Из сопоставления с полем ТПО по данным AVHRR спутника NOAA-14 видно, что хорошо отображаются тонкие детали распределения температуры воды такие, как выступ теплых вод в северной части вихря и др. Температурные контрасты на границе вихря достигают 12ºС. Хоккайдо

Almaz-1 The first Russian SAR was carried by Kosmos-1870 launched in 1987, and the second by the space station Almaz-1 (Diamond) in This SAR operated at a wavelength of 9.6 cm with HH polarization; the spatial resolution was m within a swath width of km.

SAR image of the Barents Sea to the south of Novaya Zemlya Island, acquired by Almaz-1 spacecraft on 5 July Almaz-1

K O (a) (b) (c) Hokkaido (а) ALOS PALSAR image acquired on 18 April K – northern boundary of the warm Kuroshio waters; O – southern boundary of the cold Oyashio waters. High productive cold waters have a dark tone due to increased concentration of biogenic films. (б) MCSST for 18 April (c) SeaWiFS-derived chlorophyll a concentration in April Red rectangle marks the boundaries of PALSAR image.

Envisat ASAR image of the Bering Sea acquired on 20 June :47 UTC © ESA 2007

Envisat ASAR image of the Okhotsk Sea acquired on 18 Sep :00 UTC © ESA 2007

A map of bathymetry of the Yellow Sea (color bar) and the boundaries of wide swath Envisat ASAR images acquired on 15 August at 01:41 UTC and on 31 August 2007 at 1:46 UTC.

Wide swath Envisat ASAR image of the Yellow Sea. 15 Aug :41 UTC. White rectangles show the boundaries of subimages. © ESA 2007

Fragment of Envisat ASAR image of the Yellow Sea for 15 Aug at 01:41 UTC.

Envisat ASAR image of the Okhotsk Sea acquired on 18 Sep :00 UTC © ESA 2007

News Авиасалон "МАКС Aug Russian radar satellite. Scientific-Production Enterprise «НПО машиностроения». Kondor-E satellite with SAR operating at meter wavelength with resolution of several meters Руководитель Росгидромета А.И. Бедрицкий – Фрадкову (за 5 дней до отставки правительства): «начиная с 2008 г., эта международная группировка будет дополняться российскими геостационарными спутниками «Электро» и полярноорбитальными «Метеор». В соответствии с Федеральной космической программой России к 2010 г. должна быть создана система из двух КА «Электро» и трех КА «Метеор». Другим направлением развития спутниковых наблюдательных систем руководитель Росгидромета назвал мониторинг арктического региона. Система «Арктика» в составе двух КА на высокоэллиптических орбитах и двух радиолокационных КА на околополярных орбитах дополнит международную систему метеоспутников, что впервые обеспечит возможность непрерывных глобальных наблюдений Земли. Проект поддерживается Всемирной Метеорологической организацией.

Fragment of Envisat ASAR image of the Yellow Sea for 15 Aug at 01:41 UTC.

POI Marine Station Cape Shults

Simultaneous observation of biogenic and artificial slicks in Vitaz Bay on 5 September 2005 at 01:30 UTC

Slicks in the Vityaz Bay. 5 September Image taken from Cape Shultz by a video camera with polarization filter