Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning 2 Thinking Like an Economist. - презентация

1 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning 2 Thinking Like an Economist

2 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Thinking Like an Economist Every field of study has its own terminology Mathematics integrals axioms vector spaces Psychology ego id cognitive dissonance Law promissory estoppel torts venues Economics supply opportunity cost elasticity consumer surplus demand comparative advantage deadweight loss

3 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Thinking Like an Economist Economics trains you to.... Think in terms of alternatives. Evaluate the cost of individual and social choices. Examine and understand how certain events and issues are related.

4 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning THE ECONOMIST AS A SCIENTIST The economic way of thinking... Involves thinking analytically and objectively. Makes use of the scientific method.

5 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning The Scientific Method: Observation, Theory, and More Observation Uses abstract models to help explain how a complex, real world operates. Develops theories, collects, and analyzes data to evaluate the theories.

6 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning The Role of Assumptions Economists make assumptions in order to make the world easier to understand. The art in scientific thinking is deciding which assumptions to make. Economists use different assumptions to answer different questions.

7 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Economic Models Economists use models to simplify reality in order to improve our understanding of the world Two of the most basic economic models include: The Circular Flow Diagram The Production Possibilities Frontier

8 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Our First Model: The Circular-Flow Diagram The circular-flow diagram is a visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow through markets among households and firms.

9 Figure 1 The Circular Flow Copyright © 2004 South-Western Spending Goods and services bought Revenue Goods and services sold Labor, land, and capital Income = Flow of inputs and outputs = Flow of dollars Factors of production Wages, rent, and profit FIRMS Produce and sell goods and services Hire and use factors of production Buy and consume goods and services Own and sell factors of production HOUSEHOLDS Households sell Firms buy MARKETS FOR FACTORS OF PRODUCTION Firms sell Households buy MARKETS FOR GOODS AND SERVICES

10 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Our First Model: The Circular-Flow Diagram Firms Produce and sell goods and services Hire and use factors of production Households Buy and consume goods and services Own and sell factors of production

11 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Our First Model: The Circular-Flow Diagram Markets for Goods and Services Firms sell Households buy Markets for Factors of Production Households sell Firms buy

12 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Our First Model: The Circular-Flow Diagram Factors of Production Inputs used to produce goods and services Land, labor, and capital

13 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Our Second Model: The Production Possibilities Frontier The production possibilities frontier is a graph that shows the combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce given the available factors of production and the available production technology.

14 Figure 2 The Production Possibilities Frontier Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning Production possibilities frontier A B C Quantity of Cars Produced 2, , ,000 3,000 1,000 Quantity of Computers Produced D

15 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Our Second Model: The Production Possibilities Frontier Concepts Illustrated by the Production Possibilities Frontier Efficiency Tradeoffs Opportunity Cost Economic Growth

16 Figure 3 A Shift in the Production Possibilities Frontier Copyright © 2004 South-Western E Quantity of Cars Produced 2, , ,000 3,000 1,000 Quantity of Computers Produced A

17 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Microeconomics and Macroeconomics Microeconomics focuses on the individual parts of the economy. How households and firms make decisions and how they interact in specific markets Macroeconomics looks at the economy as a whole. Economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growth

18 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning THE ECONOMIST AS POLICY ADVISOR When economists are trying to explain the world, they are scientists. When economists are trying to change the world, they are policy advisor.

19 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning POSITIVE VERSUS NORMATIVE ANALYSIS Positive statements are statements that attempt to describe the world as it is. Called descriptive analysis Normative statements are statements about how the world should be. Called prescriptive analysis

20 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Positive or Normative Statements? An increase in the minimum wage will cause a decrease in employment among the least-skilled. POSITIVE Higher federal budget deficits will cause interest rates to increase. POSITIVE ? ? POSITIVE VERSUS NORMATIVE ANALYSIS ?

21 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Positive or Normative Statements? The income gains from a higher minimum wage are worth more than any slight reductions in employment. NORMATIVE State governments should be allowed to collect from tobacco companies the costs of treating smoking-related illnesses among the poor. NORMATIVE ? ? POSITIVE VERSUS NORMATIVE ANALYSIS ?

22 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Economists... serve as advisers in the policymaking process of the three branches of government: Legislative Executive Judicial

23 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning WHY ECONOMISTS DISAGREE They may disagree about the validity of alternative positive theories about how the world works. They may have different values and, therefore, different normative views about what policy should try to accomplish.

24 Table 2 Ten Propositions about Which Most Economists Agree Copyright © 2004 South-Western

25 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Summary Economists try to address their subjects with a scientists objectivity. They make appropriate assumptions and build simplified models in order to understand the world around them. Two simple economic models are the circular-flow diagram and the production possibilities frontier.

26 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Summary Economics is divided into two subfields: Microeconomists study decisionmaking by households and firms in the marketplace. Macroeconomists study the forces and trends that affect the economy as a whole

27 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Summary A positive statement is an assertion about how the world is. A normative statement is an assertion about how the world ought to be. When economists make normative statements, they are acting more as policy advisors than scientists.

28 Copyright © 2004 South-Western/Thomson Learning Summary Economists who advise policymakers offer conflicting advice either because of differences in scientific judgments or because of differences in values. At other times, economists are united in the advice they offer, but policymakers may choose to ignore it.