The Americas and Oceania Worlds Apart:. This chapter presents the evolution of complex societies in the Americas and the Pacific Islands up to the sixteenth. - презентация

1 The Americas and Oceania Worlds Apart:

2 This chapter presents the evolution of complex societies in the Americas and the Pacific Islands up to the sixteenth century. Isolation and varied resources led to a wide range of social structures from simple hunting-gathering to settled agricultural villages to highly complex urban societies like those of the Aztecs and the Incas. Common aspects of these societies include: Isolation from one another and from the cultures of the Eastern Hemisphere. Absence of metallurgy, although the peoples of Mesoamerica and South America mined gold and silver. Few domesticated animals – the llama and alpaca of the Andes Mountains being the notable exceptions – and, as a result, no wheeled transport Lack of a written language. The Aztec had mathematics, precise calendars, and a symbolic system of record keeping, but no formal written literature. The Inca kept accounts with quipu, a system of knotted cord. Study of these societies is limited by the lack of written sources. The earliest accounts of the Aztec and Inca come from the Spanish conquerors and missionaries and are distorted by their prejudices. Nevertheless, those accounts plus oral traditions and archaeological evidence make it possible to describe those societies in some detail.

3 States and Empires in Mesoamerica and North America Societies had limited or no contact with Africa, Asia, Europe Brief presence of Scandinavians in Newfoundland, Canada Some Asian contact with Australia Mesoamerica in period of war and conquest, 8 th century CE

4 The Toltec and Aztec empires, C.E.

5 The Toltecs Regional states in central Mexican valley Religious and cultural influence of collapsed Teotihuacan Intense warfare Toltecs migrate from north-west Mexico, settle at Tula (near modern Mexico city) High point of civilization: CE Urban population of 60,000, another 60,000 in surrounding area Subjugation of surrounding peoples Civilization destroyed by internal strife, nomadic incursions 1175 CE

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7 The Mexica One of several groups of migrants, mid 13 th c. CE Tradition of kidnapping women, seizing cultivated lands Settled c CE in Tenochtitlan (later becomes Mexico City) Dredged soil from lake bottom to create fertile plots of land Chinampas, up to 7 crops per year

8 The Aztec Empire Mexica develop tributary empire by 15 th century Itzcóatl ( ), Motecuzouma I (Montezuma, ) Joined with Texcoco and Tlacopan to create Aztec Empire

9 Hierarchical Social Structure Priests Masters of complex agricultural/ritual calendars Ritual functions Read omens, advised rulers Occasionally became rulers as well Soldiers Mainly drawn from aristocratic class Land grants, food privileges Sumptuary privileges, personal adornment Communal groups: calpulli Originally kin-based Management of communal lands Work obligation on aristocratic lands Slave class Debtors Children sold into slavery

10 Mexica Women Patriarchal structure Emphasis on child- bearing Especially future soldiers Mothers of warriors especially lauded

11 Mexica Religion Influenced by indigenous traditions from the Olmec period Ritual ball game Solar calendar (365 days) and ritual calendar (260 days) Not as elaborate as Maya calendar

12 Mexica Gods Tezcatlipoca (smoking mirror) Powerful god of life and death Patron god of warriors Quetzalcóatl Arts, crafts, agriculture Huitzilopochtli 14 th century popularity, patron of Mexica Emphasis on blood sacrifices

13 Ritual Bloodletting More emphasis on human sacrifice than predecessor cultures Sacrificial victims had tips of fingers torn off before death, ritual wounds Victims: Mexica criminals, captured enemy soldiers Personal rituals: piercing of penis, earlobes

14 Peoples and Societies of the North Pueblo and Navajo Societies American southwest Maize farming 80% of diet By 700 CE, construction of permanent stone or adobe dwellings, 125 sites discovered Iroquois Peoples Settled communities in woodlands east of Mississippi Mound-building peoples Ceremonial platforms, homes, burial grounds Cahokia large mound near east St. Louis, CE

15 Trade No written documents survive regarding northern cultures Archaeological evidence indicates widespread trade River routes exploited Cahokia peaked around 1250 CE. The citys inhabitants built over 100 mounds, eighty of which remain. With somewhere between 10,000 to 15,000 people, it held the record for the largest American city until around 1800, when Philadelphia finally overtook it.

16 States and Empires in South America No writing before arrival of Spaniards, 16 th century CE Unlike Mesoamerican cultures, writing from 5 th c. CE Archaeological evidence reveals Andean society from 1 st millennium BCE Development of cities CE

17 Before the Coming of the Incas After displacement of Chavín, Moche societies Development of autonomous regional states in Andean South America Kingdom of Chucuito Lake Titicaca (border of Peru and Bolivia) Potato cultivation, herding of llamas, alpacas Kingdom of Chimu (Chimor) Peruvian coast Capital Chanchan

18 The Inca empire, C.E. From valley of Cuzco Refers to people who spoke Quecha language Settlement around Lake Titicaca mid 13 th century Ruler Pachacuti (r ) expands territory Modern Peru, parts of Equador, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina Population 11.5 million

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20 Quipu and Inca Administration Incas ruled by holding hostages, colonization No writing, used system of cords and knots called quipu Mnemonic aid

21 Cuzco Capital of Inca empire Residents high nobility, priests, hostages Gold facades on buildings

22 Inca roads Massive road building system Two north-south roads, approximately 10,000 miles Mountain route Coastal route Paved, shaded, wide roads Courier and messenger services Limited long-distance trade, held by government monopoly

23 Incan Society and Religion Social elites dominated by infallible king Claimed descent from the sun Worship of ancestors Remains preserved in mummified form Regularly consulted Sacrifices offered Paraded on festive occasions Aristocrats receive special privileges Earlobe spools as adornment Priestly class ascetic, celibate Peasants organized into community groups called ayllu Land, tools held communaly Mandatory work details on land of aristocrats Public works

24 Inca Religion Inti sun god Viracocha creator god Temples as pilgrimage sites Peasant sacrifices usually produce, animals (not humans) Sin understood as disruption of divine order

25 The Societies of Oceania Nomadic foragers of Australia Virtually static culture No agriculture New Guinea Swine herding, root cultivation c BCE Small-scale trade of surplus food, some goods Pearly oyster shells, spears, boomerangs Cultural and Religious Traditions Loosely tied to environment Myths, stories about geological features Rituals to ensure continuing food supply

26 The societies of Oceania

27 The Development of Pacific Island Societies Established in almost all islands in early centuries BCE Trade between island groups Long-distance voyaging on intermittent basis Brought sweet potatoes from South America c. 300 CE Voyages preserved in oral traditions

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29 Population Growth Extensive cultivation Fishing innovations Fish ponds allow small fish in, trap larger fish Population density leads to social strife, economic degradation C CE fierce fighting, cannibalism

30 Development of Social Classes Complexity of population leads to articulation of distinct classes High chiefs, lesser chiefs, commoners, artisans, peasants Small multi-island empires form Limited before 19 th century Yet controlled land allocation, labor and military conscription

31 Polynesian Religion Priests as intermediaries to divine Gods of war, agriculture most prominent Ceremonial precinct or temple: Marae (heiau)