1 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab Integrated circuit Another name for a chip, an integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made out of a semiconductor material.chip devicesemiconductor The first integrated circuit was developed in the 1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor. Texas Instruments Integrated circuits are used for a variety of devices, including microprocessors, audio and video equipment, and automobiles. microprocessors Integrated circuits are often classified by the number of transistors and other electronic components they contain:transistors SSI (small-scale integration): Up to 100 electronic components per chip MSI (medium-scale integration): From 100 to 3,000 electronic components per chip LSI (large-scale integration): From 3,000 to 100,000 electronic components per chipLSI VLSI (very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic components per chipVLSI ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic components per chipULSI

2 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab REGISTER TRANSFER AND MICROOPERATIONS Register Transfer Language Register Transfer Bus and Memory Transfers Arithmetic Microoperations Logic Microoperations Shift Microoperations Arithmetic Logic Shift Unit

3 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab SIMPLE DIGITAL SYSTEMS Combinational and sequential circuits (learned in Chapters 1 and 2) can be used to create simple digital systems. These are the low-level building blocks of a digital computer. Simple digital systems are frequently characterized in terms of –the registers they contain, and –the operations that they perform. Typically, –What operations are performed on the data in the registers –What information is passed between registers

4 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab MICROOPERATIONS (1) Register Transfer Language The operations on the data in registers are called microoperations. The functions built into registers are examples of microoperations –Shift –Load –Clear –Increment –…

5 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab MICROOPERATION (2) An elementary operation performed (during one clock pulse), on the information stored in one or more registers R f(R, R) f: shift, load, clear, increment, add, subtract, complement, and, or, xor, … ALU (f) Registers (R) 1 clock cycle Register Transfer Language

6 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab ORGANIZATION OF A DIGITAL SYSTEM - Set of registers and their functions - Microoperations set Set of allowable microoperations provided by the organization of the computer - Control signals that initiate the sequence of microoperations (to perform the functions) Definition of the (internal) organization of a computer Register Transfer Language

7 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab REGISTER TRANSFER LEVEL Register Transfer Language Viewing a computer, or any digital system, in this way is called the register transfer level This is because were focusing on –The systems registers –The data transformations in them, and –The data transfers between them.

8 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab REGISTER TRANSFER LANGUAGE Register Transfer Language Rather than specifying a digital system in words, a specific notation is used, register transfer language For any function of the computer, the register transfer language can be used to describe the (sequence of) microoperations Register transfer language –A symbolic language –A convenient tool for describing the internal organization of digital computers –Can also be used to facilitate the design process of digital systems.

9 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab DESIGNATION OF REGISTERS Register Transfer Language Registers are designated by capital letters, sometimes followed by numbers (e.g., A, R13, IR) Often the names indicate function: –MAR- memory address register –PC- program counter –IR- instruction register Registers and their contents can be viewed and represented in various ways –A register can be viewed as a single entity: –Registers may also be represented showing the bits of data they contain MAR

10 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab DESIGNATION OF REGISTERS Register Transfer Language R1 Register Numbering of bits Showing individual bits Subfields PC(H)PC(L) a register - portion of a register - a bit of a register Common ways of drawing the block diagram of a register R Designation of a register

11 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab REGISTER TRANSFER Register Transfer Copying the contents of one register to another is a register transfer A register transfer is indicated as R2 R1 –In this case the contents of register R2 are copied (loaded) into register R1 –A simultaneous transfer of all bits from the source R1 to the destination register R2, during one clock pulse –Note that this is a non-destructive; i.e. the contents of R1 are not altered by copying (loading) them to R2

12 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab REGISTER TRANSFER Register Transfer A register transfer such as R3 R5 Implies that the digital system has –the data lines from the source register (R5) to the destination register (R3) –Parallel load in the destination register (R3) –Control lines to perform the action

13 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab CONTROL FUNCTIONS Register Transfer Often actions need to only occur if a certain condition is true This is similar to an if statement in a programming language In digital systems, this is often done via a control signal, called a control function –If the signal is 1, the action takes place This is represented as: P: R2 R1 Which means if P = 1, then load the contents of register R1 into register R2, i.e., if (P = 1) then (R2 R1)

14 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF CONTROLLED TRANSFERS Implementation of controlled transfer P: R2 R1 Block diagram Timing diagram Clock Register Transfer Transfer occurs here R2 R1 Control Circuit Load P n Clock Load t t+1 The same clock controls the circuits that generate the control function and the destination register Registers are assumed to use positive-edge-triggered flip-flops

15 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab SIMULTANEOUS OPERATIONS Register Transfer If two or more operations are to occur simultaneously, they are separated with commas P: R3 R5, MAR IR Here, if the control function P = 1, load the contents of R5 into R3, and at the same time (clock), load the contents of register IR into register MAR

16 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab BASIC SYMBOLS FOR REGISTER TRANSFERS Capital letters Denotes a register MAR, R2 & numerals Parentheses () Denotes a part of a register R2(0-7), R2(L) Arrow Denotes transfer of information R2 R1 Colon : Denotes termination of control function P: Comma, Separates two micro-operations A B, B A SymbolsDescription Examples Register Transfer

17 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab CONNECTING REGISTRS Register Transfer In a digital system with many registers, it is impractical to have data and control lines to directly allow each register to be loaded with the contents of every possible other registers To completely connect n registers n(n-1) lines O(n 2 ) cost –This is not a realistic approach to use in a large digital system Instead, take a different approach Have one centralized set of circuits for data transfer – the bus Have control circuits to select which register is the source, and which is the destination

18 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab BUS AND BUS TRANSFER Bus is a path(of a group of wires) over which information is transferred, from any of several sources to any of several destinations. From a register to bus: BUS R Register ARegister BRegister CRegister D Bus lines Bus and Memory Transfers

19 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab TRANSFER FROM BUS TO A DESTINATION REGISTER Three-State Bus Buffers Bus line with three-state buffers Reg. R0Reg. R1Reg. R2Reg. R3 Bus lines 2 x 4 Decoder Load D 0 D 1 D 2 D 3 z w Select E (enable) Output Y=A if C=1 High-impedence if C=0 Normal input A Control input C Select Enable S0 S1 A0 B0 C0 D0 Bus line for bit 0 Bus and Memory Transfers

20 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab BUS TRANSFER IN RTL Bus and Memory Transfers Depending on whether the bus is to be mentioned explicitly or not, register transfer can be indicated as either or In the former case the bus is implicit, but in the latter, it is explicitly indicated R2 R1 BUS R1, R2 BUS

21 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab MEMORY (RAM) Bus and Memory Transfers Memory (RAM) can be thought as a sequential circuits containing some number of registers These registers hold the words of memory Each of the r registers is indicated by an address These addresses range from 0 to r-1 Each register (word) can hold n bits of data Assume the RAM contains r = 2k words. It needs the following –n data input lines –n data output lines –k address lines –A Read control line –A Write control line data input lines data output lines n n k address lines Read Write RAM unit

22 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab MEMORY TRANSFER Bus and Memory Transfers Collectively, the memory is viewed at the register level as a device, M. Since it contains multiple locations, we must specify which address in memory we will be using This is done by indexing memory references Memory is usually accessed in computer systems by putting the desired address in a special register, the Memory Address Register (MAR, or AR) When memory is accessed, the contents of the MAR get sent to the memory units address lines AR Memory unit Read Write Data inData out M

23 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab MEMORY READ Bus and Memory Transfers To read a value from a location in memory and load it into a register, the register transfer language notation looks like this: This causes the following to occur –The contents of the MAR get sent to the memory address lines –A Read (= 1) gets sent to the memory unit –The contents of the specified address are put on the memorys output data lines –These get sent over the bus to be loaded into register R1 R1 M[MAR]

24 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab MEMORY WRITE Bus and Memory Transfers To write a value from a register to a location in memory looks like this in register transfer language: This causes the following to occur –The contents of the MAR get sent to the memory address lines –A Write (= 1) gets sent to the memory unit –The values in register R1 get sent over the bus to the data input lines of the memory –The values get loaded into the specified address in the memory M[MAR] R1

25 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab SUMMARY OF R. TRANSFER MICROOPERATIONS Bus and Memory Transfers A B Transfer content of reg. B into reg. A AR DR(AD)Transfer content of AD portion of reg. DR into reg. AR A constantTransfer a binary constant into reg. A ABUS R1, Transfer content of R1 into bus A and, at the same time, R2 ABUS transfer content of bus A into R2 AR Address register DR Data register M[R] Memory word specified by reg. R M Equivalent to M[AR] DR M Memory read operation: transfers content of memory word specified by AR into DR M DR Memory write operation: transfers content of DR into memory word specified by AR

26 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab MICROOPERATIONS Computer system microoperations are of four types: - Register transfer microoperations - Arithmetic microoperations - Logic microoperations - Shift microoperations Arithmetic Microoperations

27 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab ARITHMETIC MICROOPERATIONS Summary of Typical Arithmetic Micro-Operations Arithmetic Microoperations R3 R1 + R2 Contents of R1 plus R2 transferred to R3 R3 R1 - R2Contents of R1 minus R2 transferred to R3 R2 R2Complement the contents of R2 R2 R2+ 12's complement the contents of R2 (negate) R3 R1 + R2+ 1subtraction R1 R1 + 1Increment R1 R1 - 1Decrement The basic arithmetic microoperations are –Addition –Subtraction –Increment –Decrement The additional arithmetic microoperations are –Add with carry –Subtract with borrow –Transfer/Load –etc. …

28 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab BINARY ADDER / SUBTRACTOR / INCREMENTER Binary Adder-Subtractor Binary Incrementer Binary Adder Arithmetic Microoperations

29 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab ARITHMETIC CIRCUIT S1 S x1 MUX X0 Y0 C0 C1 D0 FA S1 S x1 MUX X1 Y1 C1 C2 D1 FA S1 S x1 MUX X2 Y2 C2 C3 D2 FA S1 S x1 MUX X3 Y3 C3 C4 D3 FA Cout A0 B0 A1 B1 A2 B2 A3 B3 01 S0 S1 Cin S1S0CinYOutputMicrooperation 0 00BD = A + BAdd 0 01BD = A + B + 1Add with carry 0 10BD = A + BSubtract with borrow 0 11BD = A + B+ 1Subtract 1 000D = ATransfer A 1 010D = A + 1Increment A 1 101D = A - 1Decrement A 1 111D = ATransfer A Arithmetic Microoperations

30 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab LOGIC MICROOPERATIONS Logic Microoperations Specify binary operations on the strings of bits in registers –Logic microoperations are bit-wise operations, i.e., they work on the individual bits of data –useful for bit manipulations on binary data –useful for making logical decisions based on the bit value There are, in principle, 16 different logic functions that can be defined over two binary input variables However, most systems only implement four of these –AND ( ), OR ( ), XOR ( ), Complement/NOT The others can be created from combination of these … … … … A B F 0 F 1 F 2 … F 13 F 14 F 15

31 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab LIST OF LOGIC MICROOPERATIONS List of Logic Microoperations - 16 different logic operations with 2 binary vars. - n binary vars functions 2 2 n Truth tables for 16 functions of 2 variables and the corresponding 16 logic micro-operations Boolean Function Micro- Operations Name x y Logic Microoperations F0 = 0 F 0 Clear F1 = xy F A B AND F2 = xy' F A B F3 = x F A Transfer A F4 = x'y F A B F5 = y F B Transfer B F6 = x y F A B Exclusive-OR F7 = x + y F A B OR F8 = (x + y)' F A B) NOR F9 = (x y)' F (A B) Exclusive-NOR F10 = y' F B Complement B F11 = x + y' F A B F12 = x' F A Complement A F13 = x' + y F A B F14 = (xy)' F (A B) NAND F15 = 1 F all 1's Set to all 1's

32 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF LOGIC MICROOPERATIONS 0 0 F = A B AND 0 1 F = A B OR 1 0 F = A B XOR 1 1 F = A Complement S 1 S 0 Output -operation Function table Logic Microoperations B A S S F 1 0 i i i X 1 MUX Select

33 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab APPLICATIONS OF LOGIC MICROOPERATIONS Logic Microoperations Logic microoperations can be used to manipulate individual bits or a portions of a word in a register Consider the data in a register A. In another register, B, is bit data that will be used to modify the contents of A –Selective-set A A + B –Selective-complement A A B –Selective-clear A A B –Mask (Delete) A A B –Clear A A B –Insert A (A B) + C –Compare A A B –...

34 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab SELECTIVE SET Logic Microoperations In a selective set operation, the bit pattern in B is used to set certain bits in A A t B A t+1 (A A + B) If a bit in B is set to 1, that same position in A gets set to 1, otherwise that bit in A keeps its previous value

35 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab SELECTIVE COMPLEMENT Logic Microoperations In a selective complement operation, the bit pattern in B is used to complement certain bits in A A t B A t+1 (A A B) If a bit in B is set to 1, that same position in A gets complemented from its original value, otherwise it is unchanged

36 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab SELECTIVE CLEAR Logic Microoperations In a selective clear operation, the bit pattern in B is used to clear certain bits in A A t B A t+1 (A A B) If a bit in B is set to 1, that same position in A gets set to 0, otherwise it is unchanged

37 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab MASK OPERATION Logic Microoperations In a mask operation, the bit pattern in B is used to clear certain bits in A A t B A t+1 (A A B) If a bit in B is set to 0, that same position in A gets set to 0, otherwise it is unchanged

38 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab CLEAR OPERATION Logic Microoperations In a clear operation, if the bits in the same position in A and B are the same, they are cleared in A, otherwise they are set in A A t B A t+1 (A A B)

39 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab INSERT OPERATION Logic Microoperations An insert operation is used to introduce a specific bit pattern into A register, leaving the other bit positions unchanged This is done as –A mask operation to clear the desired bit positions, followed by –An OR operation to introduce the new bits into the desired positions –Example »Suppose you wanted to introduce 1010 into the low order four bits of A: A (Original) A (Desired) » A (Original) Mask A (Intermediate) Added bits A (Desired)

40 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab SHIFT MICROOPERATIONS Shift Microoperations There are three types of shifts –Logical shift –Circular shift –Arithmetic shift What differentiates them is the information that goes into the serial input Serial input A right shift operation A left shift operation Serial input

41 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab LOGICAL SHIFT Shift Microoperations In a logical shift the serial input to the shift is a 0. A right logical shift operation: A left logical shift operation: In a Register Transfer Language, the following notation is used –shl for a logical shift left –shrfor a logical shift right –Examples: »R2 shr R2 »R3 shl R3 0 0

42 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab CIRCULAR SHIFT Shift Microoperations In a circular shift the serial input is the bit that is shifted out of the other end of the register. A right circular shift operation: A left circular shift operation: In a RTL, the following notation is used –cil for a circular shift left –cirfor a circular shift right –Examples: »R2 cir R2 »R3 cil R3

43 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab ARITHMETIC SHIFT Shift Microoperations An arithmetic shift is meant for signed binary numbers (integer) An arithmetic left shift multiplies a signed number by two An arithmetic right shift divides a signed number by two The main distinction of an arithmetic shift is that it must keep the sign of the number the same as it performs the multiplication or division A right arithmetic shift operation: A left arithmetic shift operation: 0 sign bit sign bit

44 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab ARITHMETIC SHIFT Shift Microoperations An left arithmetic shift operation must be checked for the overflow 0 V Before the shift, if the leftmost two bits differ, the shift will result in an overflow In a RTL, the following notation is used –ashl for an arithmetic shift left –ashrfor an arithmetic shift right –Examples: »R2 ashr R2 »R3 ashl R3 sign bit

45 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF SHIFT MICROOPERATIONS Shift Microoperations S 0 1 H0 MUX S 0 1 H1 MUX S 0 1 H2 MUX S 0 1 H3 MUX Select 0 for shift right (down) 1 for shift left (up) Serial input (I R ) A0 A1 A2 A3 Serial input (I L )

46 Register Transfer & -operations Computer Organization Computer Architectures Lab ARITHMETIC LOGIC SHIFT UNIT S3 S2 S1 S0CinOperation Function F = A Transfer A F = A + 1 Increment A F = A + B Addition F = A + B + 1 Add with carry F = A + B Subtract with borrow F = A + B+ 1 Subtraction F = A - 1 Decrement A F = A TransferA XF = A B AND XF = A B OR XF = A B XOR XF = A Complement A 1 0 X XXF = shr A Shift right A into F 1 1 X XXF = shl A Shift left A into F Shift Microoperations Arithmetic Circuit Logic Circuit C C 4 x 1 MUX Select F S3 S2 S1 S0 B A i A D A E shr shl i+1 i i i i-1 i i