Table of Contents What are diodes made out of?____________________slide 3 N-type material_________________________________slide 4 P-type material_________________________________slide 5 The pn junction_________________________________slides 6-7 The biased pn junction___________________________slides 8-9 Properties of diodes_____________________________slides Diode Circuit Models ____________________________slides The Q Point____________________________________slides Dynamic Resistance_____________________________slides Types of diodes and their uses ___________________ slides 21-24

What Are Diodes Made Out Of? Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most common single elements that are used to make Diodes. A compound that is commonly used is Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), especially in the case of LEDs because of its large bandgap.Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most common single elements that are used to make Diodes. A compound that is commonly used is Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), especially in the case of LEDs because of its large bandgap. Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements, meaning they have 4 valence electrons. Their structure allows them to grow in a shape called the diamond lattice.Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements, meaning they have 4 valence electrons. Their structure allows them to grow in a shape called the diamond lattice. Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group 5 element. When put together as a compound, GaAs creates a zincblend lattice structure.Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group 5 element. When put together as a compound, GaAs creates a zincblend lattice structure. In both the diamond lattice and zincblend lattice, each atom shares its valence electrons with its four closest neighbors. This sharing of electrons is what ultimately allows diodes to be build. When dopants from groups 3 or 5 (in most cases) are added to Si, Ge or GaAs it changes the properties of the material so we are able to make the P- and N-type materials that become the diode.In both the diamond lattice and zincblend lattice, each atom shares its valence electrons with its four closest neighbors. This sharing of electrons is what ultimately allows diodes to be build. When dopants from groups 3 or 5 (in most cases) are added to Si, Ge or GaAs it changes the properties of the material so we are able to make the P- and N-type materials that become the diode. Si+4Si+4Si+4 Si+4Si+4Si+4 Si+4Si+4Si+4 The diagram above shows the 2D structure of the Si crystal. The light green lines represent the electronic bonds made when the valence electrons are shared. Each Si atom shares one electron with each of its four closest neighbors so that its valence band will have a full 8 electrons.

N-Type Material N-Type Material: When extra valence electrons are introduced into a material such as silicon an n-type material is produced. The extra valence electrons are introduced by putting impurities or dopants into the silicon. The dopants used to create an n-type material are Group V elements. The most commonly used dopants from Group V are arsenic, antimony and phosphorus. The 2D diagram to the left shows the extra electron that will be present when a Group V dopant is introduced to a material such as silicon. This extra electron is very mobile

P-Type Material P-Type Material: P-type material is produced when the dopant that is introduced is from Group III. Group III elements have only 3 valence electrons and therefore there is an electron missing. This creates a hole (h+), or a positive charge that can move around in the material. Commonly used Group III dopants are aluminum, boron, and gallium. The 2D diagram to the left shows the hole that will be present when a Group III dopant is introduced to a material such as silicon. This hole is quite mobile in the same way the extra electron is mobile in a n-type material

The PN Junction Steady State 1 P n NaNd Metallurgical Junction Space Charge Region ionized acceptors ionized donors E-Field ++__ h+ drift h+ diffusion e- diffusion e- drift ==

The PN Junction Steady State P n NaNd Metallurgical Junction Space Charge Region ionized acceptors ionized donors E-Field ++__ h+ drift h+ diffusion e- diffusion e- drift = = == When no external source is connected to the pn junction, diffusion and drift balance each other out for both the holes and electrons Space Charge Region: Also called the depletion region. This region includes the net positively and negatively charged regions. The space charge region does not have any free carriers. The width of the space charge region is denoted by W in pn junction formulas. Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-type materials meet. Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive doping in number of carriers per centimeter cubed. Usually in the range of to

The Biased PN Junction Pn + _ Applied Electric Field Metal Contact Ohmic Contact (Rs~0) + _ V applied I The pn junction is considered biased when an external voltage is applied. There are two types of biasing: Forward bias and Reverse bias. These are described on then next slide. These are described on then next slide.

The Biased PN Junction Forward Bias: In forward bias the depletion region shrinks slightly in width. With this shrinking the energy required for charge carriers to cross the depletion region decreases exponentially. Therefore, as the applied voltage increases, current starts to flow across the junction. The barrier potential of the diode is the voltage at which appreciable current starts to flow through the diode. The barrier potential varies for different materials. Reverse Bias: Under reverse bias the depletion region widens. This causes the electric field produced by the ions to cancel out the applied reverse bias voltage. A small leakage current, Is (saturation current) flows under reverse bias conditions. This saturation current is made up of electron-hole pairs being produced in the depletion region. Saturation current is sometimes referred to as scale current because of its relationship to junction temperature. V applied > 0 V applied < 0

Properties of Diodes Figure 1.10 – The Diode Transconductance Curve 2 V D = Bias VoltageV D = Bias Voltage I D = Current through Diode. I D is Negative for Reverse Bias and Positive for Forward BiasI D = Current through Diode. I D is Negative for Reverse Bias and Positive for Forward Bias I S = Saturation CurrentI S = Saturation Current V BR = Breakdown VoltageV BR = Breakdown Voltage V = Barrier Potential VoltageV = Barrier Potential Voltage VDVDVDVD IDIDIDID(mA) (nA) V BR ~V ~V ISISISIS

Properties of Diodes The Shockley Equation The transconductance curve on the previous slide is characterized by the following equation:The transconductance curve on the previous slide is characterized by the following equation: I D = I S (e V D / V T – 1) As described in the last slide, I D is the current through the diode, I S is the saturation current and V D is the applied biasing voltage.As described in the last slide, I D is the current through the diode, I S is the saturation current and V D is the applied biasing voltage. V T is the thermal equivalent voltage and is approximately 26 mV at room temperature. The equation to find V T at various temperatures is:V T is the thermal equivalent voltage and is approximately 26 mV at room temperature. The equation to find V T at various temperatures is: V T = kT q k = 1.38 x J/K T = temperature in Kelvin q = 1.6 x C k = 1.38 x J/K T = temperature in Kelvin q = 1.6 x C is the emission coefficient for the diode. It is determined by the way the diode is constructed. It somewhat varies with diode current. For a silicon diode is around 2 for low currents and goes down to about 1 at higher currents is the emission coefficient for the diode. It is determined by the way the diode is constructed. It somewhat varies with diode current. For a silicon diode is around 2 for low currents and goes down to about 1 at higher currents

Properties of Diodes MathCAD Example - Application

Diode Circuit Models The Ideal Diode Model The diode is designed to allow current to flow in only one direction. The perfect diode would be a perfect conductor in one direction (forward bias) and a perfect insulator in the other direction (reverse bias). In many situations, using the ideal diode approximation is acceptable. Example: Assume the diode in the circuit below is ideal. Determine the value of I D if a) V A = 5 volts (forward bias) and b) V A = -5 volts (reverse bias) + _ VAVAVAVA IDIDIDID R S = 50 R S = 50 a) With V A > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is acting like a perfect conductor so: I D = V A /R S = 5 V / 50 = 100 mA I D = V A /R S = 5 V / 50 = 100 mA b) With V A < 0 the diode is in reverse bias and is acting like a perfect insulator, therefore no current can flow and I D = 0.

Diode Circuit Models The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential This model is more accurate than the simple ideal diode model because it includes the approximate barrier potential voltage. Remember the barrier potential voltage is the voltage at which appreciable current starts to flow. Example: To be more accurate than just using the ideal diode model include the barrier potential. Assume V = 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode) Determine the value of I D if V A = 5 volts (forward bias). + _ VAVAVAVA IDIDIDID R S = 50 R S = 50 With V A > 0 the diode is in forward bias and is acting like a perfect conductor so write a KVL equation to find I D : 0 = V A – I D R S - V 0 = V A – I D R S - V I D = V A - V = 4.7 V = 94 mA R S 50 R S 50 V + V +

Diode Circuit Models The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and Linear Forward Resistance This model is the most accurate of the three. It includes a linear forward resistance that is calculated from the slope of the linear portion of the transconductance curve. However, this is usually not necessary since the R F (forward resistance) value is pretty constant. For low-power germanium and silicon diodes the R F value is usually in the 2 to 5 ohms range, while higher power diodes have a R F value closer to 1 ohm. Linear Portion of transconductance curve VDVDVDVD IDIDIDID V D V D I D I D R F = V D I D I D Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring V RFRFRFRF

Diode Circuit Models The Ideal Diode with Barrier Potential and Linear Forward Resistance Example: Assume the diode is a low-power diode with a forward resistance value of 5 ohms. The barrier potential voltage is still: V = 0.3 volts (typical for a germanium diode) Determine the value of I D if V A = 5 volts. + _ VAVAVAVA IDIDIDID R S = 50 R S = 50 V + RFRFRFRF Once again, write a KVL equation for the circuit: 0 = V A – I D R S - V - I D R F I D = V A - V = 5 – 0.3 = 85.5 mA R S + R F R S + R F

Diode Circuit Models Values of ID for the Three Different Diode Circuit Models Ideal Diode Model Ideal Diode Model with Barrier Potential Voltage Ideal Diode Model with Barrier Potential and Linear Forward Resistance IDID 100 mA94 mA85.5 mA These are the values found in the examples on previous slides where the applied voltage was 5 volts, the barrier potential was 0.3 volts and the linear forward resistance value was assumed to be 5 ohms.

The Q Point The operating point or Q point of the diode is the quiescent or no- signal condition. The Q point is obtained graphically and is really only needed when the applied voltage is very close to the diodes barrier potential voltage. The example 3 below that is continued on the next slide, shows how the Q point is determined using the transconductance curve and the load line. + _ V A = 6V IDIDIDID R S = 1000 R S = 1000 V + First the load line is found by substituting in different values of V into the equation for I D using the ideal diode with barrier potential model for the diode. With R S at 1000 ohms the value of R F wouldnt have much impact on the results. I D = V A – V I D = V A – V R S R S Using V values of 0 volts and 1.4 volts we obtain I D values of 6 mA and 4.6 mA respectively. Next we will draw the line connecting these two points on the graph with the transconductance curve. This line is the load line.

The Q Point I D (mA) V D (Volts) The transconductance curve below is for a Silicon diode. The Q point in this example is located at 0.7 V and 5.3 mA Q Point: The intersection of the load line and the transconductance curve.

Capacitance and Voltage of PN Junctions Diode Operation – Animation Diode Operation – Animation Webpage Link

Dynamic Resistance The dynamic resistance of the diode is mathematically determined as the inverse of the slope of the transconductance curve. Therefore, the equation for dynamic resistance is: r F = V T I D I D The dynamic resistance is used in determining the voltage drop across the diode in the situation where a voltage source is supplying a sinusoidal signal with a dc offset. The ac component of the diode voltage is found using the following equation: v F = v ac r F r F + R S The voltage drop through the diode is a combination of the ac and dc components and is equal to: V D = V + v F

Dynamic Resistance Example: Use the same circuit used for the Q point example but change the voltage source so it is an ac source with a dc offset. The source voltage is now, v in = 6 + sin(wt) Volts. It is a silicon diode so the barrier potential voltage is still 0.7 volts. + v in IDIDIDID R S = 1000 R S = 1000 V + The DC component of the circuit is the same as the previous example and therefore I D = 6V – 0.7 V = 5.2 mA r F = V T = 1 * 26 mV = 4.9 r F = V T = 1 * 26 mV = 4.9 I D 5.3 mA I D 5.3 mA = 1 is a good approximation if the dc current is greater than 1 mA as it is in this example. = 1 is a good approximation if the dc current is greater than 1 mA as it is in this example. v F = v ac r F = sin(wt) V 4.9 = 4.88 sin(wt) mV r F + R S r F + R S Therefore, V D = sin (wt) mV (the voltage drop across the diode)

Types of Diodes and Their Uses PN Junction Diodes: Are used to allow current to flow in one direction while blocking current flow in the opposite direction. The pn junction diode is the typical diode that has been used in the previous circuits. AK Schematic Symbol for a PN Junction Diode Pn Representative Structure for a PN Junction Diode Zener Diodes: Are specifically designed to operate under reverse breakdown conditions. These diodes have a very accurate and specific reverse breakdown voltage. AK Schematic Symbol for a Zener Diode

Types of Diodes and Their Uses Schottky Diodes: These diodes are designed to have a very fast switching time which makes them a great diode for digital circuit applications. They are very common in computers because of their ability to be switched on and off so quickly. AK Schematic Symbol for a Schottky Diode Shockley Diodes: The Shockley diode is a four-layer diode while other diodes are normally made with only two layers. These types of diodes are generally used to control the average power delivered to a load. AK Schematic Symbol for a four-layer Shockley Diode

Types of Diodes and Their Uses Light-Emitting Diodes: Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large bandgap so movement of carriers across their depletion region emits photons of light energy. Lower bandgap LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) emit infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher bandgap energy emit visible light. Many stop lights are now starting to use LEDs because they are extremely bright and last longer than regular bulbs for a relatively low cost. AK Schematic Symbol for a Light-Emitting Diode The arrows in the LED representation indicate emitted light.

Types of Diodes and Their Uses Photodiodes: While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are sensitive to received light. They are constructed so their pn junction can be exposed to the outside through a clear window or lens. In Photoconductive mode the saturation current increases in proportion to the intensity of the received light. This type of diode is used in CD players. In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is exposed to a certain wavelength of light, the diode generates voltage and can be used as an energy source. This type of diode is used in the production of solar power. AK AK Schematic Symbols for Photodiodes